Denotation and connotation
Denotation: the literal meaning of something
E.g. A rose is a garden plantConnotation: the suggestion behind this literal meaning (reading between the lines)
E.g .The rose suggests romance and love.
When writing media analysis, you need to consider the following questions:
Denotation: what do you see?
Connotation: what is suggested? What does it mean?
Analysis: what is the effect on the audience? How is this effect created?
Example: Skittles
Denotation: There is some text with colourful streams behind each letter set around a pack shot of the product itself. The background appears to be sky.
Connotation: The advert builds on the slogan for Skittles ‘Taste the rainbow’. The connotation of the colour suggests that Skittles are joyful, fun and will provide a positive experience for the audience. The colours are vibrant and the sky in the background creates connotations of flying – this suggests to the audience that this is an exciting product.
Analysis: The advert helps the audience understand the product as the colours reflect the actual Skittles themselves. In addition, the text across the top of the advert (referring to a ‘punch in the mouth’) uses humour to connect with the audience and suggests the brand doesn’t take itself too seriously. This adds to the positive, happy brand values that are suggested by the construction of the advert.
Denotation: There is some text with colourful streams behind each letter set around a pack shot of the product itself. The background appears to be sky.
Connotation: The advert builds on the slogan for Skittles ‘Taste the rainbow’. The connotation of the colour suggests that Skittles are joyful, fun and will provide a positive experience for the audience. The colours are vibrant and the sky in the background creates connotations of flying – this suggests to the audience that this is an exciting product.
Analysis: The advert helps the audience understand the product as the colours reflect the actual Skittles themselves. In addition, the text across the top of the advert (referring to a ‘punch in the mouth’) uses humour to connect with the audience and suggests the brand doesn’t take itself too seriously. This adds to the positive, happy brand values that are suggested by the construction of the advert.
Mise-en-scene
Mise-en-scène is a French term meaning ‘Putting on Stage’. It refers to the Media language used by the producer in their media product to communicate with their audience so…everything we see on screen. We can remember what this includes using the acronym CLAMPS:
- Costume
- Lighting
- Actor placement and movement
- Make-up
- Props
- Setting
This video explains the power of mise-en-scene in film analysis:
Camera shots and angles
Learning to accurately identify different camera shots and the effect they have on an audience is a critical skill in Media Studies.
Before long, you'll find yourself naturally identifying interesting examples of camera shots, movements or angles when you're watching movies, TV or YouTube. The key aspect is always to consider WHY the director has chosen to present the scene in that way - what are they trying to communicate to the audience?
Here's a great YouTuber for Film Studies - Darius Britt AKA D4Darius. Notice that he uses 'full shot' instead of long shot - but otherwise this is pretty much as we learn the shots in class:
Camera shots:
Before long, you'll find yourself naturally identifying interesting examples of camera shots, movements or angles when you're watching movies, TV or YouTube. The key aspect is always to consider WHY the director has chosen to present the scene in that way - what are they trying to communicate to the audience?
Here's a great YouTuber for Film Studies - Darius Britt AKA D4Darius. Notice that he uses 'full shot' instead of long shot - but otherwise this is pretty much as we learn the shots in class:
Camera shots:
- Wide shot / establishing shot (WS/ES) = Used to introduce a location/setting
- Long shot (LS) = Head to toe visible, shows plenty of background fits in plenty of action
- Medium shot (MS) = Waist to head visible. Actor and setting roughly equal in frame
- Medium close up (MCU) = Camera get closer in on the character so that the face and top of shoulders are shown
- Over-the-shoulder shot (OTS)
- Close up (CU)
- Extreme close up (BCU/XCU)
- High angle: makes subject look small and weak.
- Low angle: makes subject look big and powerful.
- Unusual perspective: can be used to surprise the audience or show danger (e.g. looking down off a cliff)
Here's a reminder graphic courtesy of resource site poetryessay.co.uk:
Example analysis: The Night Manager (BBC, 2016)
Here's an example of how you write media analysis for camerawork using this BBC drama clip from The Night Manager.
1) Three camera shots:
- The opening establishing shot clearly shows the characters getting off a boat and walking into the restaurant. This both sets the scene for the following action and also confirms the characters are very rich.
- The extreme close-up on the main character's eye at 0.52 successfully communicates the intensity of the scene and the mixture of fear and emotion he feels as he watches his son being kidnapped. This has the effect of causing the audience to sympathise with the main character and wonder what will happen to the boy after being taken.
- The over-the-shoulder shot at 1.13 shows the main character recognises the man who saved the boy and that the man with the face injuries is not who he says he is. Like many over-the-shoulder shots, it is also a medium close-up which allows the audience to see the confusion on the main character's face and the realisation that he has seen him before.
2) Camera angles:
- The power between the two key characters is shown using camera angles. The high angle shot at 1.21 looking down on the man who has been beaten up shows his powerlessness and that he will rely on others to make him better. He looks broken and defeated as the close-up shot from above shows him looking up at the main character. In contrast, the main character is shown in a low-angle close-up immediately afterwards (1.23) to show his power over the broken man. The camera is looking up at him from the perspective of the man on the floor. This introduces a clear power relationship between the two characters - emphasised by the dialogue at the end: "We're going to take care of you."
3) Mise-en-scene:
- The opening establishing shot clearly shows the characters getting off a boat and walking into the restaurant. This both sets the scene for the following action and also confirms the characters are very rich.
- The extreme close-up on the main character's eye at 0.52 successfully communicates the intensity of the scene and the mixture of fear and emotion he feels as he watches his son being kidnapped. This has the effect of causing the audience to sympathise with the main character and wonder what will happen to the boy after being taken.
- The over-the-shoulder shot at 1.13 shows the main character recognises the man who saved the boy and that the man with the face injuries is not who he says he is. Like many over-the-shoulder shots, it is also a medium close-up which allows the audience to see the confusion on the main character's face and the realisation that he has seen him before.
2) Camera angles:
- The power between the two key characters is shown using camera angles. The high angle shot at 1.21 looking down on the man who has been beaten up shows his powerlessness and that he will rely on others to make him better. He looks broken and defeated as the close-up shot from above shows him looking up at the main character. In contrast, the main character is shown in a low-angle close-up immediately afterwards (1.23) to show his power over the broken man. The camera is looking up at him from the perspective of the man on the floor. This introduces a clear power relationship between the two characters - emphasised by the dialogue at the end: "We're going to take care of you."
3) Mise-en-scene:
- The restaurant setting helps to communicate the wealth and power that the main character is dealing with. It is clearly a luxurious destination and the way the family greets the owner shows they go here often. The costumes support this with characters wearing expensive clothes and wearing sunglasses. Arriving by boat also shows how rich and powerful the characters are.
Camera movement
There are a range of key camera movements we need to learn:
Pan: horizontal turn left or right
Used to follow movement. A whip pan (very fast pan) can create a feeling of action or drama.
Track/Dolly: Camera moves on tracks/wheels
Tracks action smoothly – look for in chases or fast-moving sequences.
Handheld: camera held by hand, often shaky
Handheld camera can add urgency, realism, pace or unease to a scene.
Zoom: focal length of lens changed to make subject appear closer or further away
A zoom into a character’s face can show realisation or an emotional reaction.
Crane: Camera attached to crane – can pan, track or ‘swoop’ in or out as required
Crane shots are often high angle and show large, epic scenes of dramatic action.
Tilt: Camera tilts up or down from fixed point
The hero or villain can be made to look weak or powerful using a tilt (high/low angle).
If you want to know more about camera movement, or missed the lesson, this episode of the Shot List from Studio Binder goes into real detail:
Editing: notes
Video: cuts and transitions
Film transitions
Cut (Straight cut, jump cut, match cut): Shot changes from one to another – the most common cut.
Dissolve: Shot melts into another – often shows passing of time.
Fade: Shot fades away and another shot appears. Fades to black often signify endings (of the day, scene or film)
The speed at which the film cuts from one shot to the next makes a huge difference to the experience for the audience. Generally, slow cuts build tension while fast cuts suggest action and excitement.
Juxtaposition
The word juxtaposition literally means ‘the act of placing together side by side’. In editing, this is called Parallel Editing.
In film, two shots may be placed together to create meaning for the audience. E.g. A shot of the hero may be followed by a shot of his love interest to link these in the audience’s mind.
Rocket Jump film school on YouTube has an excellent video outlining cuts and transitions in editing:
Example analysis: The Night Manager (BBC, 2016)
Here's another example of how you write media analysis for camerawork and editing using the BBC drama clip from The Night Manager.
1) Analyse the camera movement:
The camera movement at the beginning of the scene is slow, steady and fits the relaxed atmosphere as they enter the restaurant. The smooth track or dolly shot as they walk to the table (0.14 - 0.17) makes the audience feel as if they are joining the party and included in the exclusive group in the island restaurant. This all changes in the scene where the kidnappers take the main character's son. The camera movement is suddenly handheld and edgy, signalling the tension and danger to the audience. This adds realism and suspense and contrasts strongly with the smooth camera movement of the opening to the scene. The camera continues to move (handheld) throughout this scene as the kidnapping develops - this keeps the audience on edge and creates the idea that danger or something terrible may be happening.
As the kidnappers try to escape, the camera pans loosely from left to right and back again (0.57) to create the effect of someone looking around to see where the next danger will appear from. Finally, when the kidnappers have gone and the boy is returned safely, the camerawork is still handheld but not as shaky as previously. This restores normality to the scene as the danger has passed.
The camera movement at the beginning of the scene is slow, steady and fits the relaxed atmosphere as they enter the restaurant. The smooth track or dolly shot as they walk to the table (0.14 - 0.17) makes the audience feel as if they are joining the party and included in the exclusive group in the island restaurant. This all changes in the scene where the kidnappers take the main character's son. The camera movement is suddenly handheld and edgy, signalling the tension and danger to the audience. This adds realism and suspense and contrasts strongly with the smooth camera movement of the opening to the scene. The camera continues to move (handheld) throughout this scene as the kidnapping develops - this keeps the audience on edge and creates the idea that danger or something terrible may be happening.
As the kidnappers try to escape, the camera pans loosely from left to right and back again (0.57) to create the effect of someone looking around to see where the next danger will appear from. Finally, when the kidnappers have gone and the boy is returned safely, the camerawork is still handheld but not as shaky as previously. This restores normality to the scene as the danger has passed.
2) Analyse the editing:
The pace of editing suddenly increases when the kidnappers burst into the restaurant (0.22) with a series of rapid cuts to communicate the drama and danger to the audience. There is then a close up of the boy's father juxtaposed with a shot of the main kidnapper holding the boy. This tells the audience these are the two critical characters for this scene and that they will decide what happens next.
Demographics and psychographics
In order to do this, we need to learn about audience demographics and psychographics. These are two crucial aspects of how audiences are classified and identified by media companies.
Notes from today's lesson on Audience
Demographic classification:
Audience profiling
Psychographics
Media companies use audience profiling to create a more detailed picture of their audience. This means looking at the audience's personality, interests and the brands and lifestyle they enjoy. Young and Rubicam identified a range of different groups that became known as Psychographics. You can revise the different psychographic groups here.
Notes from today's lesson on Audience
Demographic classification:
- Age
- Gender
- Education
- Social class
- Race/ethnicity
- Job/profession/earnings
- Home (city/village/countryside)
Social class classification
Advertisers have traditionally classified people into the following groups:
- AB – Managerial and professional
- C1 – Supervisory and clerical
- C2 – Skilled manual
- DE – Unskilled manual and unemployed
Audience profiling
Advertisers these days are interested in more than just a social class classification. Now they try to sell a brand or lifestyle and therefore need to know more about their audience than simply age, gender or where they live.
So we also need to think about the kind of brands audiences are interested in and what this says about their lifestyle and interests. Is this product aimed at people who buy Armani and Porsche? Banana Republic and Apple? John Lewis and The Times? Lush and the Vegan Store? Peppa Pig and Haribo? The brands we buy or like say a lot about our personality and attitudes in life.
Psychographics
Media companies use audience profiling to create a more detailed picture of their audience. This means looking at the audience's personality, interests and the brands and lifestyle they enjoy. Young and Rubicam identified a range of different groups that became known as Psychographics. You can revise the different psychographic groups here.
Reception theory
Stuart Hall is a cultural theorist who looked at the relationship between the text and the audience. He suggested that meanings are fluid and open to interpretation depending on context and the consumer’s experiences as individuals as well as communities.
Hall states there are three readings to any media text:
Preferred reading
The meaning the producers intend to communicate. This builds on the idea that producers can position the audience in a certain way and influence their reading so they accept the intended message by using recognised codes and conventions (such as stereotypes).
Negotiated reading
Somewhere between the preferred and oppositional reading. The message is modified (partly accepted and partly rejected) depending on the individual experiences of the audience (e.g their age, gender or social class).
Oppositional reading
The oppositional reading goes against the meaning the producers are trying to create. The audience reject the intended message and construct an opposite reading instead. This can be due to their own social, political or moral beliefs and values.
The rest of the Plan B TEDx lecture about his plan to help disadvantaged young people through film and music.
Audience theory: key notes and terminology
Passive & Active
Passive: This is the view that audiences passively take in information from the media and that these messages have the same effect on everyone.
Active: This is the more modern and generally accepted view that audiences interact with and make conscious choices regarding the media they consume.
Two-step flow theory
This is the theory that consumers form their opinions based on opinion leaders like newspapers, politicians and, nowadays, celebrities.
The 3 Vs
VISCERAL PLEASURE: Physical thrill of watching something e.g hairs on the back of your neck in a horror film, sport, big explosions.
VICARIOUS PLEASURE: Experiencing something through the characters.
VOYEURISTIC PLEASURE: Watching people e.g hidden camera shows / elements of reality TV like Big Brother.
Passive & Active
Passive: This is the view that audiences passively take in information from the media and that these messages have the same effect on everyone.
Active: This is the more modern and generally accepted view that audiences interact with and make conscious choices regarding the media they consume.
Hypodermic Needle Theory
This is the suggestion that audiences are always passive and therefore take the intended message from the producer as if it was injected into their minds. This assumes no individual difference in audience members.
Two-step flow theory
This is the theory that consumers form their opinions based on opinion leaders like newspapers, politicians and, nowadays, celebrities.
Uses and Gratifications - Blumler & Katz
INFORMATION/SURVEILLANCE: learning information that you did not already know or that is useful for living (e.g. documentaries; weather or traffic).
IDENTITY: personally relating to something - seeing your lifestyle on screen.
DIVERSION/ENTERTAINMENT: escapism and being entertained away from your normal life.
RELATIONSHIPS: social interaction, caring about characters or celebrities, forming relationships e.g watching a soap opera for a long time because you care about what happens to long-standing characters.
The 3 Vs
VISCERAL PLEASURE: Physical thrill of watching something e.g hairs on the back of your neck in a horror film, sport, big explosions.
VICARIOUS PLEASURE: Experiencing something through the characters.
VOYEURISTIC PLEASURE: Watching people e.g hidden camera shows / elements of reality TV like Big Brother.
Industries: Ownership and control
Industries: recap
Industries are the producers, the companies that produce (make) and distribute the media product.
Industries have a strong interest in who their target audience is so that they can best appeal to them.
Some companies dominate the industry which means they own more of the content and therefore make more money (revenue).
Synergy
Industries are the producers, the companies that produce (make) and distribute the media product.
Industries have a strong interest in who their target audience is so that they can best appeal to them.
Some companies dominate the industry which means they own more of the content and therefore make more money (revenue).
Vertical integration
Vertical integration is when one conglomerate owns different companies in the same chain of production.
For example, Disney owns film studios, CGI specialists, film distributors, TV channels (such as the Disney Channel) and streaming service Disney+. This gives Disney the chance to make money at every stage of production and distribution. Complete ownership = more profit and control.
Horizontal integration
Horizontal integration is when one company buys other companies at the same level of distribution.
For example, Facebook acquired Instagram (at a cost of $1 billion) so that they could cancel out the competition by making money from both.
Horizontal integration allows companies to widen their audience and find other ways to make money.
Synergy
Synergy is when a company creates a brand that can be used across different media products and platforms. For example, Disney makes movies but then also has related stage shows, theme parks, merchandise, soundtracks and events all linked to the same brand or characters.
Convergence
Technological convergence refers to the fact we can now access all different types of media on one device.
The growth of smartphones has completely changed the relationship between industries and audiences.
Traditional industries like newspapers are now moving into video or online content and audiences can now create their own user-generated content.
Film Industry: Marketing - Marvel Cinematic Universe
Our first exam Close-Study Products will be from the Film Industry.
In our lesson, we learned the importance of film marketing and what a risky business it is for film studios.
The two Close-Study Products (CSPs) we'll be studying for the Film Industry are:
A summary of the notes from our research activity:
Risky business
The creative industries are a risky business for companies - it costs a huge amount of money to create a media product like a film and there's no guarantee the audience will like it.
No brand loyalty
A new, original film has no established brand or audience - it has to generate all the interest through marketing. This is why film companies prefer to make sequels, reboots or films from an established franchise (like the Marvel Cinematic Universe) - there is an existing audience ready to buy the product.
Star power
If the film isn't from an existing franchise, film studios use star actors or directors to help generate interest in the film and find an audience. Star directors like veteran political filmmaker Ken Loach have an established audience that will always watch his films regardless of subject matter.
A matter of timing
Marketing campaigns need to be carefully timed to create excitement about the film's release. Often, the first teaser trailers will drop up to a year before release - particularly for established franchise films like the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Social media marketing
Once the film is out, the marketing campaign has less power - because audience word-of-mouth will take over. In the digital age, people will post online about the film immediately after seeing it - which means word-of-mouth is more important than ever.
In our lesson, we learned the importance of film marketing and what a risky business it is for film studios.
The two Close-Study Products (CSPs) we'll be studying for the Film Industry are:
- Black Widow (2020)
- I, Daniel Blake (2016)
A summary of the notes from our research activity:
Risky business
The creative industries are a risky business for companies - it costs a huge amount of money to create a media product like a film and there's no guarantee the audience will like it.
No brand loyalty
A new, original film has no established brand or audience - it has to generate all the interest through marketing. This is why film companies prefer to make sequels, reboots or films from an established franchise (like the Marvel Cinematic Universe) - there is an existing audience ready to buy the product.
Star power
If the film isn't from an existing franchise, film studios use star actors or directors to help generate interest in the film and find an audience. Star directors like veteran political filmmaker Ken Loach have an established audience that will always watch his films regardless of subject matter.
A matter of timing
Marketing campaigns need to be carefully timed to create excitement about the film's release. Often, the first teaser trailers will drop up to a year before release - particularly for established franchise films like the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Social media marketing
Once the film is out, the marketing campaign has less power - because audience word-of-mouth will take over. In the digital age, people will post online about the film immediately after seeing it - which means word-of-mouth is more important than ever.
Film Industry: Black Widow
Film franchise
A film franchise is a series of films or multi-picture stories, often including some of the same characters from film to film.
Franchises have become even more important than individual stars. They consist of connected universes (e.g. Star Wars, Marvel's Cinematic Universe, DC Extended Universe etc) and many sequels (or prequels).
Blockbuster movies
Black Widow is a blockbuster movie. A blockbuster is a major studio movie that's made with a large budget, big stars and often involves a franchise.
A true blockbuster is extremely popular and brings in a lot of money. Typically, a blockbuster is a summer movie that audiences line up to see the first weekend it's released (which coincides with the school holidays and more family time).
Disney and Marvel
In 2009, The Walt Disney Company acquired Marvel Entertainment for US$4 billion. The Walt Disney Company now owns Disney Pictures, Marvel Studios, Lucasfilm and Pixar.
Walt Disney Studios are one of Hollywood's major film studios and generated an income of $2.4 billion in 2017. This means that they can afford to make more expensive films, market them around the world at great expense and ensure that they are hugely profitable.
Marketing and promotion
Star Power implies that people will want to see a film with a certain star in it. Most mainstream films and blockbusters will use Star Power to attract audiences to their film. The main star in Black Widow is Scarlett Johansson who is very well known and has established fans.
Walt Disney Studios had a huge budget to make and market Black Widow although the success of the film was badly affected by the Covid-19 pandemic closing cinemas. Some of the strategies used included:
- Traditional methods such as posters and teaser trailers on TV and in cinema.
- Stars of the film appeared on a range of TV chat shows and press events.
- Film trailers were released on YouTube and in cinemas.
- Specific IMAX promotions with 22 minutes of the film shot in 1.90:1 aspect ratio especially for IMAX cinemas.
- Section of the Marvel website with gallery, story synopsis, character posters and opportunities to buy or stream the movie.
- Social media profiles on TikTok, Instagram, Twitter and Facebook. Social media and YouTube advertising was also heavily used by Marvel to promote the film including using tweets from audience members on massive billboards.
Star interviews and TV appearances:
Specific IMAX promotional videos:
The Covid-19 pandemic has had a huge impact on the film industry and changed the release strategy for many films. While cinemas are still the primary way of making money for the film industry, some movies are being released to streaming services alongside cinema - or bypassing cinema altogether. Watch this report on Black Widow with an interview with IMAX CEO Richard Gelfond:
Social media marketing
The film used tweets from audience members to help promote the film:
Was the film a global box office hit?
Black Widow’s success is difficult to judge due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
Black Widow’s budget was $200m and it only made $379m at the worldwide box office due to the pandemic. Marvel would have spent well over $100m on marketing the film globally so the profit level is very low. Most Marvel films have made around $1 billion at the box office.
However, this doesn’t take into account revenues through Disney+ so Black Widow may well still make Marvel and Disney a profit in the end.
Film industry: Regulation
Films in the UK are regulated by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC).
Black Widow was awarded a 12A by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC). It was deemed to have “moderate violence, injury detail”, yet was not too graphic.
With a 12A, no-one under the age of 12 can see the film unless accompanied by an adult. It is quite a new classification (1989) and was introduced due to the large gap between PG and 15.
It is important that all MCU films are 12A at the most as the major film companies want to keep the young audience for:
- Merchandising opportunities.
- Better potential box office.
- 47% of cinema audiences were aged 7-24 in the UK in 2014. Word of mouth and peer influence is important in generating interest.
Hollywood v Independent cinema
Independent films are very different to Hollywood blockbusters like Black Widow. The style of ‘indie’ films is very different to Hollywood blockbusters, as the directors and producers have more creative input – it’s being made in their vision, not in the vision of studio bosses.
Independent films have much smaller budgets, and are often supported financially by public service broadcasters, film institutions and charity funding. They are also distributed by smaller companies.
I, Daniel Blake notes
I, Daniel Blake is an award-winning independent British Drama film. The main character, Daniel Blake, 59, who has worked as a joiner most of his life in the North East of England needs help from the State for the first time ever following an illness.
He crosses paths with a single mother Katie and her two young children, Daisy and Dylan. Katie’s only chance to escape a one roomed homeless hostel in London is to accept a flat some 300 miles away.
Daniel stands up and fights for his dignity, leading a one-man crusade for compassion that will transform the lives of a struggling single mother (Katie) and her two children. It is a drama that has a strong political message about Britain in an age of government austerity.
Additional promotion:
Independent films are very different to Hollywood blockbusters like Black Widow. The style of ‘indie’ films is very different to Hollywood blockbusters, as the directors and producers have more creative input – it’s being made in their vision, not in the vision of studio bosses.
Independent films have much smaller budgets, and are often supported financially by public service broadcasters, film institutions and charity funding. They are also distributed by smaller companies.
I, Daniel Blake notes
I, Daniel Blake is an award-winning independent British Drama film. The main character, Daniel Blake, 59, who has worked as a joiner most of his life in the North East of England needs help from the State for the first time ever following an illness.He crosses paths with a single mother Katie and her two young children, Daisy and Dylan. Katie’s only chance to escape a one roomed homeless hostel in London is to accept a flat some 300 miles away.
Daniel stands up and fights for his dignity, leading a one-man crusade for compassion that will transform the lives of a struggling single mother (Katie) and her two children. It is a drama that has a strong political message about Britain in an age of government austerity.
Key details:
- I, Daniel Blake was released in 2016 and was directed by Ken Loach. The film was rated by the BBFC as a 15.
- A UK/French co-production, the film is a classed as a drama due to the nature of the narrative and themes within the film.
- The cast is made up of lesser known actors, including Dave Johns, Hayley Squires and Sharon Percy.
- The film is classed as an independent film, due to the fact that it is a low budget film with a relatively unknown cast.
Director power: Ken Loach
Ken Loach has been a director for over 50 years. He’s never had Hollywood success, mainly because he’s never wanted it. Loach’s style is social realism – telling stories that represent the lives of ordinary working-class people and the social issues they face, for example unemployment, poverty and addiction. His films also have political themes. Rather than create films for entertainment or money, his goal is to expose and educate people to the issues that many people in society face.
Ken Loach's 2019 film Sorry We Missed You highlighted the difficulty of working class people working on zero hour contracts (you can watch the trailer here). Here he talks to Sky News about the film and how it compares to Marvel superhero blockbusters like Black Widow:
Marketing and promotion
Along with traditional trailer and print adverts, the film makers eOne also used disruptive marketing such as:
- Organise free (or ‘pay what you can’) screenings and talks in community centres across the UK to build local enthusiasm for the film’s message.
- Film was premiered not in London, but Newcastle (where the film is set) to gain local support.
- The then Labour Leader Jeremy Corbyn attended the London premiere and people that had been denied benefit payments were asked to placard the event.
- ‘I, Daniel Blake’ was projected onto the Houses of Parliament ('guerrilla marketing') and in various cities
- Loach appeared on BBC Question Time to talk on issue giving the film extra credibility
A conventional trailer was also produced for the film:
Additional promotion:
- A partnership was set up with Trinity Mirror (Daily Mirror owners) to run a marketing campaign based on the film. The Daily Mirror traditionally supports the Labour Party and left-wing causes so therefore agreed with the main message of the film.
- The film also paired up with NomadiX Media's iProjector to create an outdoor campaign using quotes from the film.
- Ken Loach and the writer did interviews with newspapers and magazines to promote the key messages of the film (see clip from Economist below).
- Finally, a video was released using members of the public and politicians that supported the film’s message. This was highlighted with the hashtag #WeAreAllDanielBlake
Secret Cinema Youth screening
Secret Cinema, as part of their charitable Secret Youth campaign, organised a screening of the film in both London’s East End and Newcastle. The event was aimed at first-time voters, and the event happened just before the 2017 general election
The screening was accompanied by talks from Ken Loach and performances from artists that either supported or had a connection with the film’s themes. They also organised food bank donation stalls at the screening and encouraged people to contribute
Budget, box office and critical success
The screening was accompanied by talks from Ken Loach and performances from artists that either supported or had a connection with the film’s themes. They also organised food bank donation stalls at the screening and encouraged people to contribute
Budget, box office and critical success
It is very difficult to establish the exact production costs of ‘I, Daniel Blake’ although 16 Films Producer, Rebecca O’Brien, said it was a ‘modest amount’, even for a Ken Loach film. We know some of the funding it received (e.g. £300k from the BFI) and can estimate it to be around £2 million. Compare that to the $200 million that it cost to make our other CSP, Black Widow.
I, Daniel Blake was exhibited in 24 countries and performed well in Europe and other smaller countries. The film grossed £11 million and received a wide range of positive critic reviews.
‘I, Daniel Blake’ Is Ken Loach’s most successful UK release ever and continued to sell well around Europe. Like all Ken Loach films, it did particularly well in France. As well as Box Office success, it was also a critical success and award winner (including the renowned Palme D’or from the Cannes Film Festival).
I, Daniel Blake was exhibited in 24 countries and performed well in Europe and other smaller countries. The film grossed £11 million and received a wide range of positive critic reviews.
‘I, Daniel Blake’ Is Ken Loach’s most successful UK release ever and continued to sell well around Europe. Like all Ken Loach films, it did particularly well in France. As well as Box Office success, it was also a critical success and award winner (including the renowned Palme D’or from the Cannes Film Festival).
Regulation: BBFC rating
‘I, Daniel Blake’ was awarded a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classifications (BBFC). This was due to the following scenes being included:
- Bad language (uttered by the main characters out of anger and frustration or for emphasis. Was justified by context and not impactful.)
- Frightening and Intense scenes (There are two notable scenes of emotional intensity. They include 'the food bank' scene and the ending 'funeral' scene.)
This explains briefly how the BBFC works:
Codes and conventions of print adverts
How are women represented in advertising?
Oxo TV adverts
Explore how the representations of women have changed through these two adverts for Oxo. Are they really as different as they first appear?
1980s Oxo advert
2017 Oxo advert: Change of Plan
In 2017 Oxo launched a 'new family' to advertise some of their recent products and released a TV advert called 'Change of Plan'. There are definitely some significant changes between the 1980s Oxo family and the updated version - although perhaps the gender representations on display haven't progressed quite as much as it first appears.
When studying print adverts we need to look for the following conventions or typical features:
- Picture of product
- USP - unique selling point. What is it that makes the product special or different to appeal to consumers?
- Lighting
- Setting / colour scheme
- Logo – this is usually the brand name
- Slogan – this is a catchy phrase summing up the ethos of the product e.g Nike’s ‘Just Do It’
Persuasive techniques in advertising
Advertisements are generally trying to persuade their target audience to:
- Buy a product or service
- Believe something or act in a certain way
- Agree with a point of view
There are many persuasive techniques used in advertising. A selection include:
- Image and colour scheme- to catch and keep attention
- Slogan – a catchy phrase or statement
- Established brand identity – associated with success or taste or good quality.
- Repetition – constant reference to product name
- Association / Star Power – e.g. celebrity endorsement
- Emotional appeal or shock tactics – designed to create strong feelings
- Expert opinion – ‘4 out of 5 dentists…’
- Imperative- Giving no choice e.g ‘Taste the rainbow’
Media analysis example - Maltesers advert
Conventions and analysis
- Pictures of the product (Maltesers) to remind us of the type of product it is. The image also reinforces the word ‘lighter’ as the chocolates dance and jump off the floor.
- The Logo is bright and large in the centre of the advert. The word ‘malt’ relates to the flavours used and ‘tesers’ is a play on the word ‘tease’ which ties in with the playful, light ethos.
- The Background features the heavy use of red. It is bright and eye-catching with connotations of love. This makes the consumer recognise the brand colour and makes them think they love the product, or may gift it to someone they love.
- The Slogan at the bottom is clearly visible and stands out against the background. ‘Lighter’ and ‘enjoy’ reinforce the USP – that Maltesers are slightly healthier or 'lighter' chocolate.
- The Colour Scheme is red and white - recognisable from the packets of Maltesers, creating a brand identity.
Gender stereotypes in advertising
Key words
Representation: the way a group or individual is portrayed in the media.
Normalised: when something becomes considered ‘normal’ or ‘usual’
Stereotype: viewing a group or individual in a fixed, over-simplified way.
Conventions: typical features of a media product.
Reinforce a stereotype: the representation supports our usual expectations.
Subvert a stereotype: the representation goes against our usual expectations.
Social, Cultural and Historical contexts
Another aspect we have to consider whenever we study a media product is how it reflects British society and what message it may be sending to audiences. Our exam board AQA calls this 'social and cultural contexts' and those words will appear in several exam questions in our final exams. Similarly, when we study media products from history, we will also need to consider historical contexts - how the media product reflects the time period in which it was created. These are the key questions to ask:
Social contexts: How do media products influence or affect people in society?
Cultural contexts: How the media reflects the typical ideas, opinions and beliefs in society and the media industries.
Historical contexts: How has society (and the type of media product) changed over time?
The representation of women in advertising is a great example of all three of these contexts. The way women are presented in adverts says a lot about the culture the advert is created in, it may well affect the way both women and men feel and behave in society and it also has changed over time.
How are women represented in advertising?
The stereotype of women in advertising is often negative. Representations through the history of advertising have suggested that women are inferior to men, bad drivers, powerless, sexualised or focused on domestic work (e.g. cleaning). This potentially influences media audiences and the views in wider society.
Oxo TV adverts
Explore how the representations of women have changed through these two adverts for Oxo. Are they really as different as they first appear?
1980s Oxo advert
2017 Oxo advert: Change of Plan
Unfortunately, this advert is no longer on YouTube but can be watched on the Ads of the World website here or alternatively on Google Drive here (using your Greenford Google login).
Advertising CSP 1: OMO print advert
The first close-study product for Advertising and Marketing is the 1955 advert for OMO washing powder that appeared in Woman's Own magazine.
This product provides an excellent opportunity to analyse the changing representation of women in advertising over the last 60 years.
Sample questions for Advertising and Marketing
In your Media exams, you are likely to get questions similar to these:
- Why do advertisers use stereotypes? [6 marks]
- Explain how advertisements reflect the historical context in which they were created. [12 marks]
And here's an image of an annotated advert from the lesson on OMO - you'll need your Greenford Google login to access this.
This product provides an excellent opportunity to analyse the changing representation of women in advertising over the last 60 years.
Sample questions for Advertising and Marketing
In your Media exams, you are likely to get questions similar to these:
- Why do advertisers use stereotypes? [6 marks]
- Explain how advertisements reflect the historical context in which they were created. [12 marks]
OMO advert CSP (1955)
OMO was a popular washing powder brand in the 1950s. This advert was from 1955 and needs to be studied both in terms of historical context and how it would be received today.
In 1955, British society was still adjusting after World War Two in which women took on many traditionally male jobs with men off fighting. This led to advertising in the 1950s often trying to reinforce traditional female stereotypes of housewives and mothers in order to protect male power both at work and at home.
Annotations
In the lesson, you'll have a chance to annotate your own copy of the OMO advert and make notes of the key conventions and what they communicate to the audience.
Here are some of the questions we discussed when we annotated our copy of the advert in class:
Advertising CSP 2: Audrey Hepburn Galaxy advert
Our second close-study product for Advertising and Marketing is the 2016 Galaxy chocolate advert 'Chauffeur' featuring a CGI version of Hollywood film star Audrey Hepburn.
This product provides an excellent opportunity to explore a range of different representations: celebrity, place (Italy), gender and more.
Galaxy advert: background information
This is the advert CSP:
You can read more about the incredible CGI technology that went into creating the advert here. There is also a Guardian feature from the production company behind the advert explaining the technical process.
GLOW words to use for this CSP
Historical context of confectionary advertising
Galaxy brand identity
The Galaxy brand identity has focused on luxury and indulgence for over 25 years. This 1995 advert is a good example of the Galaxy brand and also features a nostalgic soundtrack:
Audrey Hepburn
Audrey Hepburn was a huge Hollywood star in the 1950s and 1960s. She was associated with Hollywood glamour and style and was also a fashion icon and model. She died in 1993 at the age of 63.
For the Galaxy advert, the advertising agency used a CGI-version of Hepburn from 1953, the year of her hit film Roman Holiday. The advert is set on the luxurious Italian Riviera which creates intertextuality and nostalgia – two key audience pleasures.
Intertextuality in Media Products
Narrative theory
This product provides an excellent opportunity to explore a range of different representations: celebrity, place (Italy), gender and more.
Galaxy advert: background information
This is the advert CSP:
You can read more about the incredible CGI technology that went into creating the advert here. There is also a Guardian feature from the production company behind the advert explaining the technical process.
GLOW words to use for this CSP
- Intertextuality: When one media text refers to or suggests another media text
- Semiotic codes: The media language choices (‘signs’) that create connotations for the audience.
Historical context of confectionary advertising
Nostalgia, or a "yearning for yesterday," is a frequently used advertising tool. It is particularly common in the chocolate industry.
This classic Flake advert from the 1980s creates a nostalgic atmosphere of a more innocent time:
This classic Flake advert from the 1980s creates a nostalgic atmosphere of a more innocent time:
Galaxy brand identity
The Galaxy brand identity has focused on luxury and indulgence for over 25 years. This 1995 advert is a good example of the Galaxy brand and also features a nostalgic soundtrack:
Audrey Hepburn
Audrey Hepburn was a huge Hollywood star in the 1950s and 1960s. She was associated with Hollywood glamour and style and was also a fashion icon and model. She died in 1993 at the age of 63.For the Galaxy advert, the advertising agency used a CGI-version of Hepburn from 1953, the year of her hit film Roman Holiday. The advert is set on the luxurious Italian Riviera which creates intertextuality and nostalgia – two key audience pleasures.
Intertextuality in Media Products
Intertextuality is where one media product (e.g. Galaxy) makes reference to other media products (e.g. Audrey Hepburn movies such as 1953 film Roman Holiday) to interest and engage the audience.
Narrative theory
We also need to learn narrative theories in GCSE Media Studies and the Galaxy advert is an ideal time to learn these. Narrative theories help us understand how media texts are constructed to engage an audience and keep them watching or reading until the end.
Propp’s Character theory
Vladimir Propp stated that there were seven basic character functions when he analysed 100 fairy tales and that these were present in most narratives. Media products still use these recognisable character types today:
Equilibrium > Disequilibrium > New equilibrium
This can be applied to most media narratives.
Galaxy advert: Representations
The TV advertisement for Galaxy uses a range of stereotypes. Stereotypes are used so that information can be quickly communicated to the target audience. What stereotypes are used in this advert and why? Are they reinforced or subverted?
Place: Italy
Hero, Villain, Heroine/Princess, Father, Donor, Helper/Sidekick, False Hero
Todorov: equilibrium
Todorov suggested that all narratives follow a three part structure.
They begin with equilibrium, where everything is balanced, progress as something comes along to disrupt that equilibrium, and finally reach a resolution, when a new equilibrium is restored.
Equilibrium > Disequilibrium > New equilibrium
This can be applied to most media narratives.
Galaxy advert: Representations
The TV advertisement for Galaxy uses a range of stereotypes. Stereotypes are used so that information can be quickly communicated to the target audience. What stereotypes are used in this advert and why? Are they reinforced or subverted?
Place: Italy
Celebrity: Audrey Hepburn
Product: Galaxy chocolate
Time: 1950s
Gender: Men & Women
Advertising CSP 3: Represent NHS Blood campaign
Our final close-study product for Advertising and Marketing is the NHS Blood and Transplant online campaign video 'Represent' featuring Lady Leshurr.
This product provides an excellent opportunity to explore a range of different representations: ethnicity, masculinity, femininity, class, age, disability and ability and place. It's also a different type of advert as it's not promoting a product but instead is a campaign designed to influence the audience's behaviour.
Sample questions for Advertising and Marketing
In your Media exams, you are likely to get questions similar to these:
1) Why do advertisers use stereotypes? [6 marks]
2) Explain how advertisements reflect the social and cultural contexts in which they were created. [12 marks]
Think about how you might answer those questions based on the CSPs we have studied.
Represent: background information
Lady Leshurr is an English rapper, singer and producer. She is famous for her freestyling rap style and has her own clothing line.
This is the advert CSP:
This is a 'making of' video about how the Represent video was made:
This product provides an excellent opportunity to explore a range of different representations: ethnicity, masculinity, femininity, class, age, disability and ability and place. It's also a different type of advert as it's not promoting a product but instead is a campaign designed to influence the audience's behaviour.
Sample questions for Advertising and Marketing
In your Media exams, you are likely to get questions similar to these:
1) Why do advertisers use stereotypes? [6 marks]
2) Explain how advertisements reflect the social and cultural contexts in which they were created. [12 marks]
Think about how you might answer those questions based on the CSPs we have studied.
Advertising campaigns
Some adverts are produced in a series as a campaign. An advertising campaign is a series of advertisements that share a singular theme, message or idea. These are used to raise awareness of an issue or of the brand itself. The best campaigns have an emotional impact on audiences.
An advertising campaign will usually appear across multiple media platforms - print, broadcast and online.
Represent: background information
Lady Leshurr is an English rapper, singer and producer. She is famous for her freestyling rap style and has her own clothing line.
This is the advert CSP:
This is a 'making of' video about how the Represent video was made:
The two articles we read in the lesson provide details on the campaign and how it was developed. This also gives information on why blood from people with a BAME background is so vital.
GLOW words to use in connection to this campaign
GLOW words to use in connection to this campaign
- Literal – the actual, obvious meaning
- Semiotics - the message behind what you see (hidden messages)
- Reinforce stereotype – when a representation is what we expect
- Challenge/subvert stereotype - When a representation goes against what we normally see in the media
- Mass - A mass audience is made up of a large group of people (men, women, children, elderly)
- Niche - A niche audience is a small subset with very unique interests or characteristics
Codes and conventions of urban music videos
- There are many low-angled, close up shots in hip hop videos, to imply the artists’ power over their audience. The low angle gives them the power, because they look down on the audience and the close up gives status because it implies they’re important enough to have a frame to themselves.
- Sections of direct contact with the camera (the artist usually spends a lot of time looking straight into the camera as if to talk or have a conversation with the audience and relate to them)
- Props regarding costume tend to be used, for e.g. gold jewellery (male rap artists are commonly known to wear heavy chains or prominent rings)
- Show a clear display of emotions – if the tone of the song is angry, the artist is likely to present this through their gestures and facial expressions.
- Strong editing cuts between concept / performance and narrative.
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